AP Psychology 2026 FRQ Set 2 Prediction

Introduction: This cross-cultural study examines the relationship between attachment styles and problem-solving abilities in toddlers across different cultural contexts.

Participants: A total of 240 toddlers (ages 18-24 months) and their primary caregivers participated from three countries: United States (n=80), Japan (n=80), and Kenya (n=80). The sample was balanced for gender (52% female, 48% male). Families were recruited through community health centers and daycare facilities.

In the United States sample: 45% White, 25% Hispanic/Latino, 18% Black/African American, 8% Asian American, 4% Other. Japanese sample consisted of families living in Tokyo metropolitan area. Kenyan sample consisted of families from both urban Nairobi and rural communities.

Method: Researchers obtained informed consent from all parents/guardians before participation. The study used a within-subjects design with all participants completing both assessments.

Phase 1 - Attachment Assessment: Each toddler participated in a modified Strange Situation procedure lasting approximately 20 minutes. The procedure included:

• Episode 1 (3 min): Parent and child enter unfamiliar playroom
• Episode 2 (3 min): Stranger enters room, talks with parent
• Episode 3 (3 min): Parent leaves room, stranger attempts to comfort child
• Episode 4 (3 min): Parent returns, stranger leaves
• Episode 5 (3 min): Parent leaves child completely alone
• Episode 6 (3 min): Stranger returns and attempts comfort
• Episode 7 (3 min): Parent returns for reunion

Trained observers blind to the study's hypothesis coded attachment styles as:

• Secure attachment: Child explores environment when parent present, shows distress when parent leaves, quickly comforted upon reunion
• Anxious-resistant attachment: Child clingy even before separation, extremely distressed during separation, difficult to comfort during reunion
• Avoidant attachment: Child shows little distress during separation, ignores or avoids parent during reunion

Phase 2 - Cognitive Assessment: Within one week of attachment assessment, toddlers completed a problem-solving task. Each child was presented with a clear puzzle box containing an attractive toy. The toy could only be retrieved by opening a latch mechanism. Researchers measured:

• Time to first attempt (in seconds)
• Total time to solve puzzle (in seconds, maximum 300 seconds)
• Number of times child looked at parent for reassurance
• Successful completion (yes/no)

Results:

Attachment Style	Mean Time to Solve (seconds)	Standard Deviation	Success Rate	Mean Looks to Parent
Secure	145	32.5	78%	3.2
Anxious-Resistant	248	45.8	41%	12.7
Avoidant	186	52.1	62%	0.8

Statistical Analysis: Researchers found statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) in problem-solving performance across attachment styles. Post-hoc analysis revealed that securely attached toddlers solved puzzles significantly faster than both anxious-resistant and avoidant groups.

Cross-Cultural Findings: Attachment style distribution varied by country. The United States showed 65% secure, 20% anxious-resistant, 15% avoidant. Japan showed 55% secure, 30% anxious-resistant, 15% avoidant. Kenya showed 70% secure, 18% anxious-resistant, 12% avoidant. However, the relationship between attachment security and problem-solving success remained consistent across all three cultures.

Discussion: Findings suggest that secure attachment provides toddlers with a "secure base" from which to explore and solve problems independently. The cognitive benefits of secure attachment appear to transcend cultural boundaries, though the prevalence of different attachment styles varies by culture.

Introduction: This experimental study examined the effects of restricted sleep on academic performance and cognitive testing in high school students.

Participants: 120 high school students (ages 14-17, mean age = 15.8) from three high schools were recruited. The sample included 58% female and 42% male students. Participants reported typical sleep duration of 7-9 hours per night and had no diagnosed sleep disorders.

Method: Participants were randomly assigned to one of three sleep conditions for a two-week period:

• Adequate sleep group (n=40): Required to sleep 9 hours per night
• Moderate restriction group (n=40): Required to sleep 6 hours per night
• Severe restriction group (n=40): Required to sleep 4 hours per night

Sleep was monitored using wrist actigraphy devices. At the end of two weeks, all participants completed a comprehensive cognitive battery including:

• Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) measuring sustained attention
• N-back task measuring working memory
• Wisconsin Card Sorting Test measuring executive function
• Simulated classroom tests in math and reading comprehension

Results:

Cognitive Measure	9-Hour Sleep	6-Hour Sleep	4-Hour Sleep
PVT Response Time (ms)	285	342	418
Working Memory Accuracy (%)	87%	72%	58%
Executive Function Score	92	76	64
Math Test Score (%)	84%	71%	62%

All differences between groups were statistically significant (p < 0.001). The 6-hour sleep group performed 15-20% worse than the 9-hour group, while the 4-hour group performed 30-35% worse. Performance declined progressively across the two-week period, with the greatest impairments occurring in week 2.

Discussion: Results demonstrate dose-dependent effects of sleep restriction on cognitive performance. Even moderate restriction to 6 hours (which many adolescents experience regularly) produced significant impairments. The cumulative nature of sleep debt suggests that chronic partial sleep deprivation has compounding negative effects.

Introduction: This neuroimaging study examined brain activity patterns in sleep-deprived adolescents during cognitive tasks.

Participants: 45 adolescents (ages 15-18, mean age = 16.4) underwent fMRI scanning under two conditions: after normal sleep (8 hours) and after 24-hour sleep deprivation. Order of conditions was counterbalanced across participants.

Method: Participants completed an attention task while undergoing fMRI scanning. The task required sustained focus and response to infrequent target stimuli over 20 minutes. Brain activity was measured in key regions including the prefrontal cortex (responsible for executive control), parietal lobe (attention networks), and thalamus (arousal regulation).

Results: After sleep deprivation, participants showed:

• 38% reduction in prefrontal cortex activation during attention tasks
• 42% increase in errors and missed responses compared to normal sleep condition
• Reduced connectivity between prefrontal cortex and parietal attention networks
• Increased activation in brain regions associated with compensatory effort, suggesting the brain was working harder to maintain performance

Task performance declined by 35% after sleep deprivation (mean accuracy: 91% after normal sleep vs. 59% after deprivation, p < 0.001).

Discussion: The neuroimaging data reveals that sleep deprivation fundamentally disrupts the neural circuits necessary for attention and executive control. The reduced prefrontal cortex activation explains why sleep-deprived adolescents struggle with focus, impulse control, and decision-making. The increased compensatory activation suggests the brain attempts to maintain performance but ultimately fails, leading to significant cognitive impairment.

Introduction: This longitudinal study tracked sleep patterns and academic performance in high school students over an entire academic year.

Participants: 856 high school students (grades 9-12) from 12 high schools participated. Students self-reported sleep duration daily using smartphone apps. Academic performance data was collected from school records.

Method: Students logged bedtime, wake time, and sleep quality ratings for 180 school nights. Researchers calculated average sleep duration for each student and correlated it with cumulative GPA, standardized test scores, and teacher-reported classroom attention.

Results:

• Students averaging 8-9 hours of sleep per night had a mean GPA of 3.4
• Students averaging 6-7 hours had a mean GPA of 2.8
• Students averaging less than 6 hours had a mean GPA of 2.3
• Each hour of sleep loss was associated with a 0.18-point decrease in GPA
• Standardized test scores were 12% higher for students in the 8-9 hour group compared to the less than 6 hour group
• Teachers rated students with adequate sleep as significantly more attentive and engaged in class (p < 0.001)

Weekend "catch-up" sleep did not fully compensate for weekday sleep loss. Students who maintained consistent sleep schedules throughout the week performed significantly better than those with irregular patterns.

Discussion: The longitudinal nature of this study demonstrates that chronic sleep deprivation has real-world academic consequences that accumulate over time. The correlation between sleep duration and GPA persisted even after controlling for factors like socioeconomic status, extracurricular involvement, and baseline academic ability, suggesting sleep is an independent predictor of academic success.