AP U.S. History Unit 3

Territorial Competition: Britain and France both claimed the Ohio River Valley—a fertile, strategic region west of the Appalachian Mountains

Economic Motives: Both nations wanted control of the lucrative fur trade with Native Americans

Colonial Expansion: British colonists pushed westward onto lands claimed by France and inhabited by Native peoples

Trigger Event: In 1754, Virginia sent young George Washington to expel French from Fort Duquesne (modern Pittsburgh); skirmish sparked larger conflict

Albany Congress (1754)

Purpose: British called colonial representatives to Albany, New York to secure alliance with Iroquois Confederacy against French

Albany Plan of Union: Benjamin Franklin proposed colonial confederation for defense; included elected legislature and president-general appointed by Crown

Outcome: Rejected by colonies (feared losing power) and Crown (feared colonial unity); but established precedent for intercolonial cooperation

Famous Cartoon: Franklin's "Join, or Die" snake cartoon promoted colonial unity

War Timeline

• 1754–1756: Early British losses; French and Native allies dominated
• 1757: William Pitt became British war minister; shifted strategy, committed more resources to North America
• 1758–1759: British tide turned; captured Fort Duquesne, Fort Niagara, Fort Ticonderoga
• 1759: British victory at Battle of Quebec—decisive battle; both commanders (Wolfe, Montcalm) killed
• 1763: Treaty of Paris ended war officially

Native American Alliances

French Allies: Algonquian peoples, Huron—French maintained better relations through fur trade partnerships

British Allies: Iroquois Confederacy (initially neutral, then supported British)

Impact: Whichever European power won would threaten Native lands; war was devastating for all Native groups

Territorial Changes

Britain Gained:

• Canada (all former French territory)
• All French lands east of Mississippi River
• Florida from Spain (Spain had allied with France)

Spain Gained: Louisiana (west of Mississippi) from France as compensation for losing Florida

France: Removed as major North American power; kept only Caribbean islands (Martinique, Guadeloupe)

British War Debt

Crisis: War cost Britain enormous sums—national debt doubled

Solution: Parliament decided to tax American colonists to help pay debt and maintain army in North America

Impact: This decision sparked colonial crisis—colonists believed they had contributed to war effort and shouldn't be taxed without representation

Proclamation of 1763

Purpose: Britain forbade colonial settlement west of Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Native Americans

Rationale: Reduce military costs; stabilize frontier; respect Native land claims

Colonial Reaction: Outrage—colonists had fought war partly to gain western lands; saw proclamation as tyrannical restriction; many ignored it and settled illegally

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763)

Leader: Pontiac, Ottawa chief

Cause: Native groups (Ottawa, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, others) feared British encroachment after French departure; British treated Natives more harshly than French had

Events: Pan-tribal alliance attacked British forts across Great Lakes and Ohio Valley; captured 8 of 12 forts; besieged Fort Pitt and Detroit

British Response: Brutal suppression; biological warfare—British officers gave Natives blankets infected with smallpox

Outcome: Rebellion gradually ended; confirmed British need to limit western settlement (Proclamation of 1763)

Colonial Confidence

Military Experience: Colonists gained military experience fighting alongside British regulars

Removed French Threat: Colonists no longer needed British protection from France

Growing Independence: Colonists developed greater sense of their own capabilities; less dependent on Britain

Sugar Act (1764)

Purpose: Raised revenue and reduced smuggling of molasses/sugar from French Caribbean

Provisions: Lowered tax on molasses (making legal trade more attractive than smuggling) but enforced it strictly; expanded vice-admiralty courts

Impact: Hurt New England rum producers; colonists protested "taxation without representation"

Stamp Act (1765)

First Direct Tax: Required colonists to purchase stamps for legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, playing cards, dice—virtually all paper goods

Significance: Internal tax (within colonies) vs. previous external taxes (on trade); affected all colonists, especially lawyers, printers, merchants

Colonial Reaction: Massive resistance

• Stamp Act Congress (1765): Nine colonies sent delegates to New York; issued Declaration of Rights and Grievances—claimed only colonial assemblies could tax colonists
• Sons of Liberty: Organized by Samuel Adams; used protests, intimidation, violence against stamp distributors
• Boycotts: Colonists refused to buy British goods
• Mob Violence: Attacked tax collectors' homes; burned stamps

Outcome: Parliament repealed Stamp Act (1766) due to colonial resistance and pressure from British merchants hurt by boycotts

Declaratory Act (1766)

Purpose: Passed same day as Stamp Act repeal

Content: Asserted Parliament's right to tax and legislate for colonies "in all cases whatsoever"

Significance: Britain didn't back down on principle—only on specific tax; set stage for future conflict

Townshend Acts (1767)

Named For: Chancellor of Exchequer Charles Townshend

Provisions:

• Taxes on imported goods: glass, lead, paint, paper, tea
• Revenue used to pay royal governors and judges (making them independent of colonial assemblies)
• Created Board of Customs Commissioners in Boston to enforce trade laws
• Allowed writs of assistance (general search warrants)

Colonial Response:

• John Dickinson's "Letters from a Farmer" (1767–1768): Argued no taxation without representation
• Renewed boycotts; "Daughters of Liberty" made homespun cloth to replace British textiles
• Circular letters coordinating resistance between colonies

Outcome: Most Townshend duties repealed (1770) except tea tax—kept to assert Parliament's right to tax

Tea Act (1773)

Purpose: Help struggling British East India Company by allowing it to sell tea directly to colonies (bypassing middlemen)

Effect: Made British tea cheaper than smuggled Dutch tea; actually lowered tea prices but maintained Townshend tea tax

Colonial View: Saw it as trick to make them accept Parliamentary taxation; threatened colonial merchants' profits

Result: Led directly to Boston Tea Party

Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770)

Context: British soldiers stationed in Boston to enforce Townshend Acts; tensions high between soldiers and colonists

Event: Mob of colonists harassed British soldiers; soldiers fired into crowd, killing 5 colonists (including Crispus Attucks, of African and Native descent—first casualty of Revolution)

Propaganda: Paul Revere created engraving depicting massacre as unprovoked slaughter; Samuel Adams used event to inflame anti-British sentiment

Trial: John Adams (future president) defended soldiers; most acquitted (showing colonial commitment to fair trials)

Significance: Increased colonial hostility; became powerful symbol of British tyranny

Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773)

Cause: Tea Act gave East India Company monopoly; colonists refused to let tea ships unload

Event: Sons of Liberty members (some disguised as Mohawk Indians) boarded ships in Boston Harbor and dumped 342 chests of tea (worth ~£10,000) into water

Leaders: Samuel Adams, John Hancock organized protest

Significance: Direct destruction of British property; pushed Britain toward harsh retaliation

Committees of Correspondence

Founder: Samuel Adams (Massachusetts, 1772)

Purpose: Coordinate colonial resistance by sharing information about British actions

Spread: Other colonies established committees; created intercolonial communication network

Significance: Unified colonial response; precursor to Continental Congress

Parliament's harsh response to Boston Tea Party; colonists called them "Intolerable Acts"

Boston Port Act

Closed Boston Harbor until tea was paid for; crippled Boston's economy

Massachusetts Government Act

Restricted town meetings; royal governor appointed council (previously elected); limited self-government

Administration of Justice Act

Allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in Britain (not colonial courts); colonists called it "Murder Act"

Quartering Act

Required colonists to house and supply British soldiers

Quebec Act (1774)

Technically separate but grouped with Coercive Acts by colonists

• Extended Quebec's borders south to Ohio River (blocking colonial westward expansion)
• Allowed Catholic Church in Quebec; no elected assembly
• Colonists saw it as attack on Protestantism and self-government

Colonial Response: United opposition; other colonies rallied to support Massachusetts; called First Continental Congress (1774)

John Locke's Social Contract Theory

Work: Two Treatises of Government (1690)

Natural Rights: All people born with life, liberty, and property (Jefferson changed "property" to "pursuit of happiness")

Social Contract: People consent to government to protect rights; if government violates rights, people can overthrow it

Popular Sovereignty: Legitimate government derives power from consent of the governed

Influence: Direct foundation for Declaration of Independence; justified revolution

Baron de Montesquieu

Work: The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Separation of Powers: Government divided into legislative, executive, judicial branches

Checks and Balances: Each branch limits others to prevent tyranny

Influence: U.S. Constitution's structure directly based on these principles

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Work: The Social Contract (1762)

"General Will": Government should reflect collective will of the people

Influence: Democratic ideals; popular sovereignty

Republicanism was a political ideology emphasizing civic virtue, public good over private interest, and opposition to monarchy/aristocracy.

Key Principles

• Civic Virtue: Citizens must prioritize common good; participate in government
• Representative Government: Elected officials represent people's interests
• Fear of Corruption: Power corrupts; tyranny threatens liberty
• Mixed Government: Balance of democratic, aristocratic, and monarchical elements
• Independence: Economic independence necessary for political independence (agrarian ideal)

Author: Thomas Paine, English immigrant

Published: January 1776

Argument: Boldly called for complete independence from Britain; attacked monarchy as illegitimate; advocated republican government

Style: Written in plain language accessible to common people (not just elites)

Key Points:

• America doesn't need Britain; independence is "common sense"
• Monarchy and hereditary succession are absurd and unjust
• America could thrive through direct trade with all nations
• Time to break ties and establish republic

Impact: Sold ~500,000 copies; read aloud in taverns, churches; shifted public opinion decisively toward independence; convinced many fence-sitters

Author: Thomas Jefferson (committee included Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston)

Approved: Second Continental Congress, July 4, 1776

Structure

Preamble: Philosophical foundation

• "All men are created equal"—assertion of human equality
• "Unalienable rights"—life, liberty, pursuit of happiness (natural rights from Locke)
• "Consent of the governed"—popular sovereignty
• Right of revolution—people can "alter or abolish" tyrannical government

List of Grievances: 27 specific complaints against King George III

• Dissolved colonial legislatures
• Imposed taxes without consent
• Quartered soldiers in homes
• Obstructed justice; denied trials
• Cut off trade

Conclusion: Formal declaration that colonies are "Free and Independent States"

Significance

• Ideological Foundation: Articulated principles of liberty, equality, natural rights that defined American identity
• Revolutionary Document: Inspired later revolutions (French, Latin American, global independence movements)
• Irony: Proclaimed "all men are created equal" while author owned enslaved people; women, enslaved people, Native Americans excluded from rights
• Living Document: Later reform movements (abolition, women's suffrage, civil rights) invoked Declaration's ideals

Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775)

"Shot Heard 'Round the World"

Cause: British General Gage ordered troops to seize colonial weapons stockpiled in Concord and arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock

Warning: Paul Revere and William Dawes rode to warn colonists: "The British are coming!"

Lexington: British encountered minutemen on town green; brief skirmish; 8 colonists killed

Concord: British marched to Concord; colonists removed most weapons; battle at North Bridge

British Retreat: Militia harassed British troops all the way back to Boston; British suffered heavy casualties; marked beginning of Revolutionary War

Second Continental Congress (May 1775)

Met: Philadelphia; became de facto national government during war

Actions:

• Created Continental Army; appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief
• Authorized printing of money
• Sent Olive Branch Petition (July 1775) to King George III seeking reconciliation; king rejected it
• Eventually declared independence (July 4, 1776)

American Advantages

• Fighting on Home Territory: Knew terrain; shorter supply lines
• Motivation: Defending homes, families, liberty; British fighting far from home
• Leadership: George Washington's strategic skills, perseverance
• Guerrilla Tactics: Hit-and-run attacks; didn't need to conquer—just outlast British
• Foreign Aid: French alliance (1778) provided money, troops, navy

American Disadvantages

• Weak Central Government: Continental Congress had no power to tax; struggled to fund army
• Lack of Resources: Few factories, limited gunpowder, inadequate supplies
• No Professional Army: Militia often untrained, poorly disciplined
• No Navy: Britain controlled seas
• Divided Loyalties: ~20% colonists were Loyalists (Tories) supporting Britain

Bunker Hill (June 1775)

Location: Actually fought on Breed's Hill near Boston

Outcome: British victory but at great cost—over 1,000 British casualties

Significance: Showed colonists could stand against professional British army; boosted American confidence

Saratoga (October 1777) — TURNING POINT

Context: British General Burgoyne's army moved south from Canada to cut New England off from other colonies

Outcome: American victory; Burgoyne surrounded and forced to surrender entire army (~6,000 troops)

Significance: Convinced France to openly ally with America (Treaty of Alliance, 1778); also prompted Spain and Netherlands to support Americans; transformed war from colonial rebellion to international conflict

Valley Forge (Winter 1777–1778)

Context: Washington's army encamped for winter in Pennsylvania

Conditions: Brutal cold, starvation, disease killed ~2,500 soldiers; lack of supplies, shoes, blankets

Training: Prussian officer Baron von Steuben drilled troops, improving discipline and tactics

Significance: Army emerged stronger, more professional; demonstrated resilience

Yorktown (October 1781) — DECISIVE VICTORY

Strategy: Washington and French General Rochambeau trapped British General Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia

Siege: American and French troops surrounded Cornwallis on land; French navy (Admiral de Grasse) blocked escape by sea

Outcome: Cornwallis surrendered entire army (~8,000 troops) on October 19, 1781

Significance: Effectively ended war; convinced Britain to negotiate peace

Negotiators: Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay represented U.S.

Terms:

• Independence: Britain recognized United States as independent nation
• Territory: U.S. gained all land from Atlantic to Mississippi River, from Great Lakes to Florida
• Fishing Rights: Americans could fish off Canadian coast
• Debts: Americans agreed to repay pre-war debts to British merchants
• Loyalists: Congress would "recommend" states return confiscated Loyalist property (mostly ignored)

Impact: Doubled U.S. territory; established nation as significant power; left issues unresolved (British forts in Northwest, Native lands, debts)

Limited Progress in the North

Gradual Emancipation: Northern states began gradual abolition

• Vermont (1777): First state to abolish slavery in constitution
• Pennsylvania (1780): Gradual emancipation law—children born to enslaved mothers would be free at age 28
• Massachusetts (1783): State court ruled slavery unconstitutional based on state constitution's equality clause
• Other Northern States: Gradual abolition laws passed through 1804

Reason: Slavery less economically important in North; fewer enslaved people; Enlightenment ideals influenced reform

Entrenchment in the South

No Abolition: Southern states rejected emancipation; slavery central to plantation economy

Contradiction: Southern founders (Jefferson, Washington, Madison) owned enslaved people while proclaiming liberty

Justifications: Racist theories emerged to justify slavery despite equality rhetoric

Expansion: Slavery expanded with cotton cultivation (post-Period 3 cotton gin, 1793)

African American Petitions

Action: Free and enslaved Black people petitioned state legislatures and Continental Congress for freedom and rights

Arguments: Used revolutionary language—natural rights, liberty, equality—to challenge slavery

Leaders: Prince Hall (Massachusetts) organized Black Masonic lodge; petitioned for abolition and education

Outcome: Some northern states responded; South rejected petitions

Women's Wartime Contributions

• Boycotts: Daughters of Liberty organized boycotts of British goods; made homespun cloth
• Camp Followers: Women cooked, nursed, laundered for army
• Spies and Messengers: Passed intelligence; some fought disguised as men
• Home Front: Managed farms and businesses while men fought

Limited Political Gains

Republican Motherhood: Ideology that women's role was to educate sons to be virtuous citizens

• Justified women's education (to teach children)
• Kept women in domestic sphere; didn't grant political rights

Abigail Adams: Urged husband John Adams to "Remember the Ladies" when creating new government; requested legal protections for women; largely ignored

New Jersey Exception: 1776 constitution allowed property-owning women to vote (rescinded 1807)

Status Quo: Women remained legally subordinate; couldn't vote, hold office, or control property (if married)

Native Alliances

Difficult Choice: Most tribes supported British (lesser threat to land) or remained neutral

Iroquois Confederacy: Split—Oneida and Tuscarora supported Americans; Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga supported British; divided confederacy weakened

Cherokee: Attacked frontier settlements; Americans retaliated with devastating raids

Consequences

Treaty of Paris Ignored Natives: Britain ceded Native lands to U.S. without consulting tribes

Land Loss: Americans aggressively pushed westward after war

Military Campaigns: Post-war expeditions attacked Native villages

Exclusion: Revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality explicitly didn't apply to Native peoples

Structure

Unicameral Legislature: One-house Congress; each state had one vote regardless of size

No Executive: No president or chief executive

No Judiciary: No national court system

Amendment: Required unanimous consent of all 13 states (nearly impossible)

Powers Congress Had

• Conduct foreign affairs and make treaties
• Declare war and make peace
• Maintain army and navy
• Coin money
• Establish post offices
• Regulate Native American affairs

Critical Weaknesses

• No Power to Tax: Could only request money from states; states often refused
• No Power to Regulate Commerce: States imposed tariffs on each other; economic chaos
• No Executive: No one to enforce laws
• No National Judiciary: No way to settle disputes between states
• Unanimous Consent for Amendments: Impossible to fix problems
• 9 of 13 States to Pass Laws: Difficult to achieve
• State Sovereignty: States retained most power; national government subordinate

Land Ordinances

Land Ordinance of 1785

• Established systematic survey and sale of western lands
• Divided land into townships (6 miles × 6 miles)
• Each township divided into 36 sections of 640 acres
• One section reserved for public schools

Northwest Ordinance of 1787 — MAJOR ACHIEVEMENT

• Territory Process: Established procedure for territories to become states
• Requirements: When territory reached 60,000 people, could apply for statehood; new states equal to original 13
• Rights Protected: Freedom of religion, trial by jury, habeas corpus, public education
• Slavery Banned: Prohibited slavery in Northwest Territory (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin)
• Native Relations: Promised fair treatment of Natives (mostly not honored)

Significance: Established precedent for westward expansion; prevented colonial system; created pathway to statehood

Treaty of Paris

Successfully negotiated end of Revolutionary War (1783)

Economic Problems

• War Debt: $40+ million owed; Congress couldn't raise taxes to pay
• Worthless Currency: Continental currency hyperinflated ("not worth a continental")
• Trade Disputes: States taxed each other's goods; no uniform trade policy
• Foreign Trade: Britain closed West Indies to American ships; Congress powerless to retaliate
• Economic Depression: Post-war recession; farmers and debtors struggled

Foreign Relations

• British Forts: Britain refused to evacuate forts in Northwest Territory (violation of Treaty of Paris)
• Spanish Florida: Spain closed Mississippi River to American trade; threatened western settlers
• Barbary Pirates: North African pirates attacked American ships; Congress couldn't fund navy for protection
• No Respect: Foreign nations didn't take weak U.S. seriously

Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787) — FINAL STRAW

Cause: Western Massachusetts farmers (many Revolutionary War veterans) faced crushing debts, high taxes, and foreclosures

Leader: Daniel Shays, former Continental Army captain

Events: Armed farmers shut down courts to prevent foreclosures and debt collection; attempted to seize federal arsenal at Springfield

Suppression: Massachusetts militia (funded by private donations) crushed rebellion

Significance:

• Exposed weakness of national government—couldn't protect property or maintain order
• Terrified elites who feared mob rule and anarchy
• Created momentum for Constitutional Convention (1787)
• Convinced many that Articles needed replacement, not amendment

Location: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Purpose: Originally called to revise Articles; delegates decided to write entirely new constitution

Secrecy: Closed sessions; no press allowed; delegates sworn to secrecy to enable frank debate

Key Figures:

• George Washington: Presided over convention; lent legitimacy
• James Madison: "Father of the Constitution"—drafted Virginia Plan; kept detailed notes
• Benjamin Franklin: Eldest delegate (age 81); promoted compromise
• Alexander Hamilton: Advocated strong central government

Notable Absences: Thomas Jefferson (ambassador to France), John Adams (ambassador to Britain), Patrick Henry (refused, saying "I smelled a rat")

Representation: Large vs. Small States

Virginia Plan (Large State Plan)

• Proposed by James Madison
• Bicameral legislature with representation based on population
• Favored large states (Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts)

New Jersey Plan (Small State Plan)

• Proposed by William Paterson
• Unicameral legislature with equal representation (like Articles)
• Favored small states (New Jersey, Delaware, Connecticut)

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) — SOLUTION

• Proposed by Roger Sherman (Connecticut)
• Bicameral Congress:
• House of Representatives: Based on population (satisfied large states)
• Senate: Equal representation—2 senators per state (satisfied small states)
• Both houses must pass laws

Slavery: North vs. South

Three-Fifths Compromise

• Issue: Should enslaved people count for representation and taxation?
• North: Enslaved people shouldn't count (would give South more power)
• South: Enslaved people should count fully (increase representation)
• Compromise: Each enslaved person counted as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation
• Impact: Increased Southern political power in House and Electoral College

Slave Trade Compromise

• Issue: Should Constitution allow continued slave trade?
• Compromise: Congress couldn't ban slave trade until 1808 (20 years)
• Fugitive Slave Clause: Escaped enslaved people must be returned to owners (even from free states)

Commerce and Trade

• Issue: Should Congress regulate trade? Impose tariffs?
• North: Wanted Congress to regulate commerce and impose tariffs (protect manufacturing)
• South: Feared tariffs would raise prices on imports; wanted agricultural exports taxed less
• Compromise: Congress can regulate interstate and foreign commerce; no taxes on exports

Presidential Election

• Debate: Direct popular vote vs. congressional selection vs. state legislatures
• Solution: Electoral College—each state gets electors equal to total congressional delegation (House + Senate)
• Electors chosen by state legislatures (initially); cast votes for president
• Purpose: Balance popular will with elite judgment; gave extra power to small states and South (via Three-Fifths)

Federalists (Pro-Constitution)

Leaders: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay

Arguments:

• Articles too weak; nation needs stronger central government
• Constitution provides checks and balances to prevent tyranny
• Large republic better protects liberty than small states
• Economic prosperity requires unified trade policy
• Foreign threats require strong national defense

The Federalist Papers: 85 essays defending Constitution; published in New York newspapers; written by Hamilton (most), Madison, and Jay under pseudonym "Publius"

• Federalist No. 10 (Madison): Large republic controls factions; diversity prevents tyranny of majority
• Federalist No. 51 (Madison): "Ambition must counteract ambition"—checks and balances
• Federalist No. 78 (Hamilton): Defends judicial review

Anti-Federalists (Against Constitution)

Leaders: Patrick Henry, George Mason, Samuel Adams, Mercy Otis Warren

Arguments:

• Constitution creates too-powerful central government; threatens liberty
• No Bill of Rights—individual liberties not protected
• President could become king; too much executive power
• Large republic can't represent diverse interests; favors elites
• States' rights endangered
• Worried about "necessary and proper" clause (elastic clause) giving Congress unlimited power

Support: Rural farmers, common people, those who feared centralized power

Ratification Process

Requirement: 9 of 13 states needed to ratify

State Conventions: Each state held ratifying convention (not state legislatures)

Timeline:

• Delaware: First to ratify (December 1787)
• Pennsylvania, New Jersey: Quickly ratified
• Massachusetts: Close vote; Federalists promised to add Bill of Rights
• June 1788: New Hampshire became 9th state—Constitution officially adopted
• Virginia, New York: Key states ratified narrowly after promise of Bill of Rights
• North Carolina, Rhode Island: Ratified after government already functioning (1789–1790)

Compromise: Federalists agreed to add Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments) to secure ratification

Popular Sovereignty

"We the People"—government's authority derives from consent of the governed; citizens are ultimate source of power

Limited Government

Government has only powers granted by Constitution; cannot act arbitrarily; rule of law applies to everyone

Separation of Powers

Government divided into three branches (from Montesquieu):

• Legislative (Congress): Makes laws
• Executive (President): Enforces laws
• Judicial (Supreme Court): Interprets laws

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit powers of others to prevent tyranny:

• Congress checks President: Can override veto (2/3 vote); controls budget; Senate confirms appointments and treaties; can impeach and remove president
• Congress checks Courts: Senate confirms judges; can impeach judges; can propose constitutional amendments
• President checks Congress: Can veto legislation; calls special sessions
• President checks Courts: Appoints federal judges; can pardon
• Courts check Congress: Judicial review—can declare laws unconstitutional
• Courts check President: Can declare executive actions unconstitutional

Federalism

Power divided between national government and state governments

• National Powers (Enumerated): Coin money, regulate interstate commerce, conduct foreign policy, declare war, maintain military
• State Powers (Reserved): Conduct elections, regulate intrastate commerce, establish local governments, ratify constitutional amendments
• Concurrent Powers: Both can tax, borrow money, establish courts, enforce laws
• Supremacy Clause: Federal law supreme over state law when conflicts arise

Flexibility

• Elastic Clause (Necessary and Proper): Congress can pass laws "necessary and proper" to carry out enumerated powers—allows adaptation
• Amendment Process: Can be changed through formal amendment (Article V)
• Judicial Interpretation: Supreme Court interprets Constitution for changing times

First 10 amendments added to satisfy Anti-Federalists and protect individual liberties. Proposed 1789; ratified 1791.

Key Amendments

• 1st Amendment: Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, petition
• 2nd Amendment: Right to bear arms
• 3rd Amendment: No quartering soldiers in homes
• 4th Amendment: Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures
• 5th Amendment: Due process; protection from self-incrimination; no double jeopardy
• 6th Amendment: Right to speedy, public trial; right to counsel
• 7th Amendment: Jury trial in civil cases
• 8th Amendment: No cruel and unusual punishment; no excessive bail
• 9th Amendment: Rights not listed are retained by people
• 10th Amendment: Powers not delegated to federal government reserved to states or people

Significance: First president under Constitution; set critical precedents

Key Actions:

• Established Cabinet system of advisors
• Set two-term precedent (voluntarily stepped down after two terms)
• Maintained neutrality in European conflicts
• Used military force to enforce federal law (Whiskey Rebellion)
• Farewell Address (1796): Warned against political parties and foreign entanglements

Alexander Hamilton: First Secretary of Treasury; wanted strong national government and commercial economy

Components of Hamilton's Plan

1. National Debt Assumption

• Federal government assume all state war debts (~$25 million)
• Purpose: Establish creditworthiness; bind wealthy to national government
• Opposition: Southern states (already paid debts) vs. Northern states (still owed)
• Compromise: Capital moved to South (Washington D.C.) in exchange for debt assumption

2. National Bank (Bank of the United States)

• Proposed 20-year charter for national bank
• Purpose: Manage government funds, issue currency, provide loans
• Constitutional Debate:
• Hamilton (Loose Construction): Elastic clause allows Congress to create bank—"necessary and proper"
• Jefferson (Strict Construction): Constitution doesn't explicitly grant power to create bank
• Outcome: Washington sided with Hamilton; bank chartered 1791

3. Tariffs and Excise Taxes

• Protective tariffs on imports to help American manufacturing
• Excise tax on whiskey (domestic goods tax)
• Purpose: Raise revenue to pay debt

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

Cause: Western Pennsylvania farmers protested whiskey excise tax; attacked tax collectors

Washington's Response: Led 13,000 militia to suppress rebellion

Significance: Showed federal government could enforce laws; contrasted with Shays' Rebellion under Articles

Federalist Party

Leader: Alexander Hamilton

Philosophy:

• Strong central government
• Loose construction of Constitution
• Pro-British in foreign policy
• National bank and assumption of state debts
• Manufacturing/commercial economy
• Protective tariffs

Support Base: Merchants, bankers, manufacturers, urban elites; strongest in New England and commercial cities

Democratic-Republican Party

Leaders: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison

Philosophy:

• Limited central government; states' rights
• Strict construction of Constitution
• Pro-French in foreign policy
• Opposed national bank
• Agrarian economy—nation of independent farmers
• Free trade; opposed tariffs

Support Base: Farmers, artisans, rural people; strongest in South and West

French Revolution (1789) & Neutrality

Dilemma: France helped America in Revolution; but French Revolution became violent

Debate:

• Jefferson/Democratic-Republicans: Support France—fellow republic, spread of liberty
• Hamilton/Federalists: Support Britain—trade partner, stability, oppose radical revolution

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793): Washington declared U.S. neutral in European wars

Jay's Treaty (1794): Resolved disputes with Britain; British evacuated Northwest forts; controversial—Democratic-Republicans saw it as too pro-British

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

With: Spain

Terms: Spain opened Mississippi River to American trade; recognized U.S. border at 31st parallel

Significance: Beneficial for western farmers; secured access to New Orleans

Literature & Arts

• Noah Webster: Published American Dictionary; standardized American English spelling (color vs. colour)
• Washington Irving: "Rip Van Winkle," "Legend of Sleepy Hollow"—American folklore
• Judith Sargent Murray: "On the Equality of the Sexes" (1790)—early feminist writing
• Charles Willson Peale: Painted portraits of Revolutionary leaders

Education

• Republican Motherhood: Ideology promoting women's education to raise virtuous citizens
• Public Schools: Movement to establish tax-supported public education
• Colleges: New institutions founded (Bowdoin, Middlebury); expanded access beyond clergy

Religion

• Disestablishment: States ended official state churches; religious freedom expanded
• Religious Pluralism: Growing diversity of denominations; evangelical growth
• Deism: Enlightenment-influenced belief in rational God; popular among founders (Jefferson, Franklin)

Citizenship & Rights

• Naturalization Act (1790): Limited citizenship to "free white persons"—excluded enslaved people, free Blacks, Native Americans, Asians
• Voting Rights: Mostly limited to white male property owners; gradually expanded to all white men by 1820s
• Women: Excluded from political participation despite contributions
• Enslaved People: Not citizens; no rights
• Free Blacks: Faced severe discrimination; limited rights even in North
• Native Americans: Viewed as foreign nations; not citizens

Push Factors: Debt, land scarcity in East, economic opportunity

Pull Factors: Cheap western land, fertile soil, independence

Routes: Across Appalachians into Ohio Valley, Kentucky, Tennessee

Impact: Conflict with Native Americans; expansion of slavery into new territories

Northwest Territory Conflicts

• Little Turtle's War (1785–1795): Miami, Shawnee, others resisted American expansion
• Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794): American victory; broke Native resistance
• Treaty of Greenville (1795): Natives ceded most of Ohio; opened Northwest to settlement

• Political: Colonial dependence → independent republic with Constitution
• Governmental: Weak Articles → stronger federal system with checks and balances
• Ideological: Subjects of king → citizens with rights and responsibilities
• Territorial: 13 colonies → expansion to Mississippi River
• International: British colonies → independent nation recognized globally

• Slavery: Continued and expanded; revolutionary ideals didn't end it
• Women's Status: Limited political and legal rights; remained subordinate
• Native American Displacement: Continued westward expansion and land loss
• Racial Hierarchy: Citizenship and rights limited to white men
• Economic Structure: Agriculture remained dominant; North-South sectional differences
• Republican Ideals: Civic virtue, property ownership linked to citizenship

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