AP U.S. History Unit 4

Candidates: Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) vs. John Adams (Federalist)

Campaign: Bitter, partisan; Federalists accused Jefferson of atheism; Republicans attacked Adams as monarchist

Electoral College Tie: Jefferson and running mate Aaron Burr tied; House of Representatives decided (Hamilton supported Jefferson despite enmity)

Outcome: Jefferson won; first peaceful transfer of power between parties

Significance: Proved democratic system worked; led to 12th Amendment (1804)—separate electoral votes for president and vice president

Jeffersonian Philosophy

• Agrarian Republic: Vision of independent farmers; opposed Hamilton's commercial/industrial economy
• Limited Government: Strict construction of Constitution; states' rights
• Reduced Federal Power: Cut military, eliminated internal taxes, reduced national debt
• Expansion: Believed westward expansion essential for agrarian republic

Louisiana Purchase (1803) — MAJOR ACHIEVEMENT

Background: France regained Louisiana from Spain (1800); Jefferson feared French control of New Orleans (vital port for Western farmers)

Opportunity: Napoleon needed money for European wars; offered to sell entire Louisiana Territory

Purchase: U.S. bought ~827,000 square miles for $15 million (~3 cents per acre)

Constitutional Dilemma: Constitution didn't explicitly authorize land purchases; Jefferson (strict constructionist) had to use loose construction to justify

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806): Meriwether Lewis and William Clark explored Louisiana Territory; reached Pacific; mapped territory; established relations with Native tribes

Significance: Doubled U.S. size; secured Mississippi River and New Orleans; opened West to expansion; set precedent for continental expansion

Marbury v. Madison (1803) — JUDICIAL REVIEW

Background: Adams appointed "midnight judges" before leaving office; Jefferson's Secretary of State Madison refused to deliver some commissions

Case: William Marbury sued for his commission

Chief Justice: John Marshall (Federalist appointed by Adams)

Ruling: Marshall declared section of Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional

Significance: Established judicial review—Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional; strengthened judicial branch; Marshall Court dominated for decades

Foreign Policy Challenges

Barbary Wars (1801–1805): U.S. fought North African pirates demanding tribute; showed willingness to protect trade

Embargo Act (1807):

• Cause: Britain and France at war; both seized U.S. ships; British impressment (forcing American sailors into British navy)
• Policy: Jefferson banned all foreign trade to avoid war
• Impact: Devastated American economy (especially New England merchants); smuggling rampant; repealed 1809
• Significance: Demonstrated limits of "peaceful coercion"; led to War of 1812

Causes

• Impressment: British navy forcing American sailors into service
• Trade Restrictions: British Orders in Council interfered with U.S. trade
• Western Grievances: British support for Native American resistance (Tecumseh's Confederacy)
• War Hawks: Young Democratic-Republicans (Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun) pushed for war to defend national honor and acquire Canada
• Expansionism: Desire to conquer Canada and Florida

The War (1812–1815)

U.S. Unprepared: Small army and navy; divided nation (New England Federalists opposed war)

Major Events:

• Failed Canadian Invasions: U.S. couldn't conquer Canada
• Naval Victories: USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides") won battles on Great Lakes
• British Burned Washington D.C. (1814): Retaliation for U.S. burning York (Toronto)
• Fort McHenry: British failed to take Baltimore; inspired "Star-Spangled Banner"
• Battle of New Orleans (1815): Andrew Jackson's victory (fought after peace treaty signed but before news arrived)

Hartford Convention (1814): New England Federalists met to protest war; proposed constitutional amendments; looked treasonous after war ended; destroyed Federalist Party

Treaty of Ghent (1814): Ended war; restored pre-war boundaries; didn't address impressment or other causes; essentially a draw

Results

• National Pride: "Second War of Independence"; confirmed U.S. sovereignty
• End of Federalist Party: Hartford Convention discredited Federalists
• Native American Losses: Tecumseh killed; tribal resistance broken; opened Northwest to settlement
• Economic Independence: War disrupted trade; encouraged American manufacturing
• Andrew Jackson: Emerged as national hero

Name: Period of one-party (Democratic-Republican) dominance and national unity after War of 1812

President: James Monroe (1817–1825)

Reality: Name misleading—underneath surface unity, sectional tensions growing over slavery, tariffs, internal improvements

Missouri Compromise (1820) — FIRST MAJOR SECTIONAL CRISIS

Issue: Missouri applied for statehood as slave state; would upset balance (11 free, 11 slave states)

Northern Opposition: Didn't want slavery to expand; feared Southern political power

Southern Defense: Claimed right to bring property (enslaved people) into territories

Compromise (Henry Clay):

• Missouri: Admitted as slave state
• Maine: Admitted as free state (from Massachusetts) to maintain balance
• 36°30' Line: Slavery banned in Louisiana Purchase north of this line (except Missouri)

Significance: Temporarily resolved crisis; revealed deep sectional divisions; Thomas Jefferson called it "a fire bell in the night"—warning of future conflict

Context: Latin American colonies won independence from Spain; European powers (especially Holy Alliance) might try to reconquer them

Main Points:

• Non-Colonization: Western Hemisphere closed to new European colonization
• Non-Intervention: Europe should not interfere in independent American nations
• Non-Involvement: U.S. would not interfere in European affairs or existing colonies
• Protection: U.S. would view European intervention in Americas as threat to national security

Authored By: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams (though announced by Monroe)

Significance: Asserted U.S. role as protector of Western Hemisphere; couldn't be enforced (weak military) but British navy backed it; became cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy; later used to justify American interventions

Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)

Also Called: Transcontinental Treaty

Terms: Spain ceded Florida to U.S.; defined western boundary of Louisiana Purchase to Pacific Ocean

Context: Andrew Jackson had invaded Florida (1818) chasing Seminole; Spain couldn't control Florida

Significance: U.S. gained Florida; established claim to Pacific coast

Roads

National Road (Cumberland Road): First federally funded road (1811); connected Maryland to Illinois; facilitated westward migration

Turnpikes: Private toll roads improved travel but were expensive

Canals

Erie Canal (1825): Connected Great Lakes to Hudson River/Atlantic Ocean

• 363 miles long; engineering marvel
• Reduced shipping costs by ~90%; travel time from 20 days to 6 days
• Made New York City dominant commercial center
• Sparked canal-building boom across nation
• Connected Western farmers to Eastern markets

Impact: Transformed regional economies; made agricultural goods cheaper; encouraged settlement of Midwest

Steamboats

Robert Fulton's Clermont (1807): First commercially successful steamboat

Impact:

• Revolutionized river travel—could travel upstream against current
• Transformed Mississippi River into commercial highway
• Connected interior to coastal markets
• Reduced shipping costs and travel time dramatically

Railroads

Early Development: 1830s–1840s; initially short lines connecting cities

Advantages: Faster than canals; not limited by geography or freezing; operated year-round

Impact: By 1850s, railroads surpassed canals; transformed economy; connected distant markets

Textile Industry

Samuel Slater (1790): "Father of American Industrial Revolution"; memorized British textile machinery designs; built first water-powered cotton mill in Rhode Island

Lowell System (1820s):

• Textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts
• Employed young, unmarried women ("Lowell Girls") from farms
• Provided housing in boardinghouses with strict rules
• Initially offered good wages and conditions; deteriorated over time
• Women gained economic independence but faced difficult working conditions

Significance: Transformed textile production from home-based to factory system; established pattern for American industrialization

Interchangeable Parts

Eli Whitney: Demonstrated concept of interchangeable parts (standardized, identical components)

Impact:

• Made manufacturing faster and cheaper
• Enabled mass production
• Products easier to repair
• Reduced need for skilled craftsmen

Other Innovations

• Cotton Gin (1793): Eli Whitney; mechanized cotton seed removal; made cotton king in South; increased demand for enslaved labor
• McCormick Reaper (1834): Cyrus McCormick; mechanized grain harvesting; increased agricultural productivity
• Telegraph (1844): Samuel Morse; instant long-distance communication; revolutionized business and news
• Sewing Machine (1846): Elias Howe; transformed clothing production

Shift from Subsistence to Market Economy

• Before: Families produced for own use; little surplus; local trade
• After: Specialization; production for distant markets; cash crops; wage labor
• Commercial Agriculture: Farmers produced crops for sale rather than subsistence
• Wage Labor: More people worked for wages rather than self-employment

Rise of Cities

Urbanization: People moved from farms to cities for factory jobs

Growth: Northern cities (New York, Boston, Philadelphia) grew rapidly

Problems: Overcrowding, disease, poverty, crime

Class Divisions

Wealthy Elite: Industrial capitalists, merchants, bankers accumulated wealth

Middle Class: Emerged—professionals, shopkeepers, clerks; embraced "self-made man" ideal

Working Class: Factory workers, urban laborers; faced low wages, long hours, dangerous conditions

Growing Inequality: Wealth gap widened between rich and poor

Cult of Domesticity (Separate Spheres)

Ideology: Middle-class idea that men and women occupied separate spheres

• Men's Sphere: Public—work, politics, business
• Women's Sphere: Private—home, children, moral guardianship

Four Virtues: Piety, purity, submissiveness, domesticity

Reality: Applied primarily to middle/upper-class white women; working-class and enslaved women couldn't afford domesticity

Consequence: Limited women's opportunities but also gave them moral authority used in reform movements

Immigration

Irish Immigration (1840s):

• Cause: Potato Famine (1845–1852) devastated Ireland
• Numbers: Over 1 million Irish immigrated
• Settlement: Urban areas (Boston, New York); worked in factories, built canals/railroads
• Reception: Faced discrimination, anti-Catholic prejudice, poverty

German Immigration:

• Many fled failed 1848 revolutions
• Often had skills and money; became farmers, craftsmen
• Settled in Midwest (Wisconsin, Missouri, Texas)

Nativism: Anti-immigrant sentiment; Know-Nothing Party opposed immigration and Catholic influence

1820s–1830s: Property requirements for voting eliminated in most states

Universal White Male Suffrage: Nearly all white men could vote by 1840s regardless of property ownership

Exclusions: Women, African Americans (free and enslaved), Native Americans still denied vote

Significance: Democratized politics for white men; increased voter participation; politicians appealed to "common man"

Changes in Campaigns

• Mass Participation: Rallies, parades, barbecues engaged voters
• Party Loyalty: Strong identification with Democratic or Whig parties
• Spoils System: Rewarding political supporters with government jobs
• Popular Appeals: Candidates emphasized common-man origins

Candidates: Four Democratic-Republicans (one-party system): Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford

Popular Vote: Jackson won most popular and electoral votes but not majority

House Decision: No electoral majority; House chose president

"Corrupt Bargain": Clay (Speaker of House) supported Adams; Adams won, then appointed Clay Secretary of State

Jackson's Reaction: Furious; claimed democracy thwarted; campaign slogan: "Corrupt Bargain"

Consequence: Jackson and supporters split from party; formed Democratic Party; Jackson won 1828 election decisively

Jacksonian Democracy

Philosophy: Expanded democracy for common (white) man; opposed elite privilege

Key Features:

• Universal white male suffrage
• Spoils system: "To the victor belong the spoils"—reward supporters with jobs
• Strong presidency: Jackson expanded executive power; vetoed more bills than all previous presidents combined
• Opposition to elites: Attacked banks, Eastern establishment, Native Americans, nullification

Indian Removal Act (1830)

Purpose: Authorize removal of Native Americans from Southeast to "Indian Territory" (Oklahoma)

Tribes Affected: "Five Civilized Tribes"—Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole

Cherokee Resistance:

• Cherokee had adopted American customs, written constitution, alphabet (Sequoyah)
• Worcester v. Georgia (1832): Supreme Court (Chief Justice Marshall) ruled Cherokee nation sovereign; Georgia laws didn't apply
• Jackson's Response: Allegedly said "Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it" (disputed); refused to enforce ruling

Trail of Tears (1838):

• Forced march of Cherokee to Oklahoma
• ~4,000 of 15,000 Cherokee died from disease, starvation, exposure
• Symbol of Native American suffering under U.S. expansion

Significance: Demonstrated federal government's willingness to violate treaties and Supreme Court rulings; cleared land for white settlement and slavery expansion

Nullification Crisis (1832–1833)

Background: South Carolina opposed protective Tariff of 1828 ("Tariff of Abominations")—hurt Southern economy, helped Northern manufacturers

John C. Calhoun's Theory: Vice President Calhoun (South Carolina) argued states could nullify (declare void) federal laws they deemed unconstitutional

Crisis:

• South Carolina declared tariffs null and void; threatened secession
• Jackson furious: "Our Union, it must be preserved"; prepared to send troops
• Force Bill: Authorized military force to collect tariff

Compromise (Henry Clay): Gradually reduced tariff; South Carolina repealed nullification

Significance: Foreshadowed Civil War; showed sectional tensions over federal vs. state power; revealed slavery as underlying issue (Calhoun defended states' rights to protect slavery)

Bank War (1832–1836)

Second Bank of the United States: Chartered 1816; 20-year charter expiring 1836

Jackson's Opposition:

• Saw bank as corrupt monopoly favoring wealthy elites
• Believed it had too much power over economy
• Questioned constitutionality

Recharter Battle (1832):

• Henry Clay and Nicholas Biddle (bank president) pushed early recharter bill (election year tactic)
• Jackson vetoed recharter; made veto key campaign issue
• Jackson won 1832 election decisively

Bank's Destruction:

• Jackson removed federal deposits; placed in state "pet banks"
• Bank died when charter expired (1836)

Consequences: Contributed to Panic of 1837 (severe economic depression); wildcat banks, speculation, inflation; no central bank until Federal Reserve (1913)

Formation (1834): Opponents of Jackson united to form Whig Party

Name: Named after British Whigs who opposed monarchy; portrayed Jackson as "King Andrew I"

Leaders: Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, William Henry Harrison

Platform:

• Supported national bank
• Favored protective tariffs
• Promoted internal improvements (roads, canals)
• Opposed Jackson's expansion of executive power
• Represented Northern merchants, Southern planters, middle class

Literature

• Washington Irving: "Rip Van Winkle," "Legend of Sleepy Hollow"—American folklore
• James Fenimore Cooper: "Last of the Mohicans"—frontier novels
• Transcendentalism: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau—emphasized individualism, nature, self-reliance; "Civil Disobedience"
• Edgar Allan Poe: Gothic tales, poetry
• Nathaniel Hawthorne: "The Scarlet Letter"—explored Puritan legacy

Art & Architecture

• Hudson River School: Landscape painters celebrating American wilderness (Thomas Cole)
• Greek Revival Architecture: Symbolized democracy (imitated ancient Greece)

Characteristics: Emotional religious revival; camp meetings; emphasized personal salvation, free will, social reform

Key Figures:

• Charles Grandison Finney: Leading revivalist; emphasized free will, perfectionism
• Burned-Over District: Western New York; intense religious activity

New Denominations: Methodists, Baptists grew rapidly; Mormons (Joseph Smith)

Significance: Inspired reform movements (abolition, temperance, women's rights); democratized religion; encouraged social activism

Abolitionism

Movement: Demanded immediate end to slavery

Leaders:

• William Lloyd Garrison: "The Liberator" newspaper; "immediate and uncompensated emancipation"
• Frederick Douglass: Escaped enslaved person; powerful orator, writer; "Narrative of the Life"
• Sojourner Truth: Former enslaved person; women's rights and abolition
• Harriet Tubman: Underground Railroad conductor; freed ~70 enslaved people

Opposition: Violent mobs attacked abolitionists; "gag rule" in Congress suppressed anti-slavery petitions

Women's Rights

Seneca Falls Convention (1848):

• First women's rights convention
• Organizers: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott
• Declaration of Sentiments: Modeled on Declaration of Independence; demanded equality, suffrage
• Statement: "All men and women are created equal"

Connection: Many women's rights activists were abolitionists; faced discrimination in abolitionist movement

Other Reform Movements

• Temperance: Anti-alcohol movement; led by women; sought to ban alcohol sales
• Education: Horace Mann promoted public education, teacher training
• Prison Reform: Dorothea Dix improved treatment of mentally ill, prisoners
• Utopian Communities: Brook Farm, New Harmony, Oneida—experimental societies

Population: ~200,000 free African Americans by 1830 (North and South)

Restrictions: Faced severe discrimination even when free; limited voting rights, job opportunities; couldn't testify against whites

Community Building: Established churches, schools, mutual aid societies

Activism: Leaders like Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth fought for abolition and rights

Cotton Gin Impact: Eli Whitney's invention (1793) made cotton profitable; "Cotton is King"

Expansion: Cotton production spread across Deep South (Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana)

Slavery Growth: Cotton cultivation dramatically increased demand for enslaved labor; slavery expanded westward

Economic Importance: Cotton was America's leading export; enriched Southern planters; connected to global markets

Hierarchy

• Planter Elite: Small minority (~2%) owning 20+ enslaved people; dominated politics, economy
• Small Slaveholders: Owned few enslaved people; aspired to planter status
• Yeoman Farmers: Majority of whites; owned no enslaved people; subsistence farming
• Poor Whites: Landless, marginalized
• Enslaved People: Bottom of hierarchy; no rights

Defense of Slavery

Shift in Rhetoric: From "necessary evil" to "positive good"

Arguments:

• Racial theories claiming Black inferiority
• Biblical justifications
• Paternalism: claimed slavery benefited enslaved people
• Economic necessity for cotton production

Market Revolution Causation

Causes: Transportation improvements, technological innovations, available capital

Effects: National market economy, urbanization, class divisions, sectional specialization (North industry, South cotton)

Democratic Expansion

Causes: Elimination of property requirements, new Western states with universal white male suffrage

Effects: Increased political participation, populist politics, Jacksonian Democracy, continued exclusion of women and people of color

Sectional Tensions

Causes: Economic differences (industry vs. agriculture), slavery expansion debates, competing visions of America's future

Effects: Missouri Compromise, nullification crisis, growing political divide (foreshadowing Civil War)

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