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Unit 2.2: Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

AP Psychology | Unit 2: Cognition

🎯 Exam Focus

This unit covers how we think, solve problems, make judgments, and decide. Master concepts and prototypes, schemas (assimilation vs. accommodation), problem-solving strategies (algorithms vs. heuristics), cognitive biases (confirmation bias, overconfidence), heuristics (availability, representativeness), influences on decisions (mental set, priming, framing), executive functions, and creativity (divergent vs. convergent thinking, functional fixedness). Unit 2 comprises 15-25% of the AP Psychology exam.

📚 Introduction

Cognition refers to all mental processes involved in thinking, understanding, learning, and remembering[web:129][web:131].

This unit explores how we organize information through concepts and schemas, solve problems using various strategies, make judgments and decisions, and the systematic errors (biases) that affect our thinking[web:129].

Understanding these processes helps explain why we make certain choices, how we can improve decision-making, and the predictable patterns in human thought[web:129][web:131].

🧩 Concepts and Prototypes

Concepts

Concepts are mental categories or groupings that help us organize information by identifying shared features among objects, ideas, or experiences[web:129][web:131].

Functions of Concepts:

  • Organize knowledge efficiently
  • Recognize patterns in the environment
  • Reduce cognitive load by grouping similar items
  • Enable quick classification of new information
  • Form the basis of thought and communication

Example:

The concept of "fruit" includes apples, bananas, oranges, and strawberries. All share features like being edible, sweet, and containing seeds[web:131].

Prototypes

Prototypes are the best, most typical, or most representative examples of a concept[web:129][web:131].

How Prototypes Work:

  • Serve as the "ideal" or clearest example of a category
  • We compare new items to prototypes to determine category membership
  • The closer a match to the prototype, the faster we identify it
  • Influence expectations and judgments about category members

Example:

For the concept "bird," most people's prototype is a robin or sparrow (small, flies, sings). A penguin is still a bird but doesn't match the prototype as closely, so we might be slower to categorize it[web:129][web:131].

📂 Schemas

What are Schemas?

Schemas are complex mental frameworks that organize knowledge, concepts, and expectations about the world[web:129].

Functions of Schemas:

  • Help us understand and predict experiences
  • Guide interpretation of new information
  • Speed up processing by providing context
  • Fill in missing information with expectations
  • Can create biases and stereotypes

Example:

Your "restaurant schema" includes expectations: being seated, looking at a menu, ordering from a server, eating, paying the bill. This schema helps you navigate restaurants automatically[web:129].

Schema Modification: Assimilation vs. Accommodation

Schemas change through two processes when we encounter new information[web:129]:

Assimilation

Adding new information into existing schemas without changing the schema itself[web:129].

  • Reinforces established patterns
  • Builds upon previous knowledge
  • Maintains current understanding

Example: You see a zebra and call it a "horse" because it fits your existing "horse" schema (four legs, hooves, mane)[web:129].

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones when new information doesn't fit[web:129].

  • Changes current schemas to match reality
  • Creates new mental categories
  • Adjusts understanding based on evidence

Example: You learn that zebras are different from horses (stripes, different behavior), so you create a new "zebra" category separate from your "horse" schema[web:129].

Memory Tip: Assimilation = "Same schema" | Accommodation = "Change schema"

🔧 Problem-Solving Strategies

We use two main approaches to solve problems: algorithms and heuristics[web:129][web:131].

Algorithms

Algorithms are step-by-step, systematic procedures that guarantee a solution if one exists[web:129][web:131].

Characteristics:

  • Methodical — follows a specific sequence
  • Reliable — guarantees correct solution
  • Time-consuming — may require testing every possibility
  • Comprehensive — doesn't miss potential solutions

Examples:

  • Math formulas: Quadratic equation \(x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}\)
  • Recipes: Following exact steps to bake a cake
  • Computer programs: Code that tries every password combination

Heuristics

Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making but don't guarantee a correct solution[web:129][web:131][web:133].

Characteristics:

  • Fast — save time and mental effort
  • Efficient — work well in most situations
  • Imperfect — can lead to systematic errors
  • Based on past experience — use patterns and prototypes

Key Point: Heuristics trade speed for accuracy. They usually work but can produce predictable biases[web:129][web:131].

🧠 Types of Heuristics

Availability Heuristic

The availability heuristic is judging the likelihood or frequency of events based on how easily examples come to mind[web:129][web:131][web:139].

How It Works:

  • Information that is recent, vivid, or memorable seems more common
  • We overestimate frequency of dramatic events
  • We rely on memory ease rather than actual statistics

Examples:

  • Plane crashes: After seeing news coverage of a plane crash, people overestimate the danger of flying, even though driving is statistically more dangerous[web:139]
  • Shark attacks: Vivid media coverage makes people fear sharks more than statistically deadlier risks like bee stings
  • Recent events: If you recently witnessed a car accident, you might drive more cautiously, perceiving accidents as more likely[web:140]

Representativeness Heuristic

The representativeness heuristic is judging how likely something is based on how well it matches our prototype or mental representation of a category[web:129][web:131][web:139].

How It Works:

  • We compare items to our prototype for a category
  • The closer the match, the more likely we think it belongs
  • We ignore base rates (actual statistical probabilities)
  • Can lead to stereotyping

Examples:

  • Occupation guess: Assuming a quiet, bookish person is more likely to be a librarian than a salesperson, even though salespeople vastly outnumber librarians[web:129]
  • Basketball player: Seeing a tall person and assuming they play basketball because they match the "basketball player" prototype[web:139]
  • Coin flips: Thinking "heads-tails-heads-tails" is more likely than "heads-heads-heads-heads" because the first sequence looks more "random"[web:142]

Anchoring Bias

Anchoring bias occurs when initial information (the "anchor") disproportionately influences subsequent judgments, even when the anchor is irrelevant[web:135][web:140].

How It Works:

  • First piece of information serves as reference point
  • Subsequent estimates stay too close to the anchor
  • Difficult to deviate from initial impression

Example:

A store originally prices a shirt at $100, then marks it down to $50. The $100 anchor makes $50 seem like a great deal, even if the shirt is only worth $30[web:140].

⚠️ Cognitive Biases

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking that affect judgments and decisions[web:129][web:132].

Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms our existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence[web:129][web:131].

How It Works:

  • We notice information that supports our views
  • We ignore or dismiss contradictory evidence
  • We remember confirming information better
  • We seek sources that agree with us

Example:

If you believe a certain diet works, you'll notice and remember success stories while dismissing or forgetting failures. You'll only read articles supporting the diet[web:129].

Overconfidence Effect

The overconfidence effect is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs, knowledge, and judgments[web:129][web:131].

Consequences:

  • Underestimating risks
  • Inadequate preparation
  • Ignoring contrary evidence
  • Making overconfident predictions

Example:

Students thinking they'll ace an exam after minimal studying, or drivers believing they're "above average" at multitasking while driving[web:129].

Hindsight Bias

Hindsight bias (the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon) is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have predicted it[web:131][web:145].

Example: After a team wins a championship, saying "I knew they would win" even though you were uncertain before the game[web:131].

Belief Perseverance

Belief perseverance is clinging to beliefs even after they have been proven wrong or discredited[web:131].

Example: Continuing to believe a stereotype about a group even after seeing clear evidence that contradicts it[web:131].

🎯 Influences on Decision-Making

Mental Set

Mental set is the tendency to approach problems using strategies that have worked in the past, even when they're not optimal for the current situation[web:129].

Effects:

  • Can help: When past strategies are appropriate
  • Can hinder: When novel solutions are needed
  • Creates cognitive rigidity
  • Prevents seeing alternative approaches

Example:

Using the same algebra method for every math problem, even when a different approach (like drawing a diagram) would be faster[web:129].

Priming

Priming is the unconscious activation of particular associations or schemas by prior exposure to related stimuli[web:129].

How It Works:

  • Recent experiences activate related concepts
  • Makes certain thoughts more accessible
  • Influences subsequent judgments unconsciously
  • Can affect perception and behavior

Example:

After seeing the word "doctor," you recognize "nurse" faster. After hearing about a car accident, you drive more cautiously[web:129].

Framing Effect

The framing effect occurs when decisions are influenced by how information is presented rather than the information itself[web:129][web:131][web:145].

Types of Framing:

  • Positive framing: Emphasizing gains ("90% survival rate")
  • Negative framing: Emphasizing losses ("10% mortality rate")

Example:

People are more likely to choose a surgery with a "90% survival rate" than one with a "10% mortality rate," even though they're identical[web:131].

🎮 Executive Functions

What are Executive Functions?

Executive functions are higher-order cognitive processes that help us regulate behavior, plan, organize, and achieve goals[web:129].

Core Executive Functions:

  • Working memory: Holding and manipulating information in mind
  • Cognitive flexibility: Adapting to new situations and switching tasks
  • Inhibitory control: Resisting impulses and distractions

Functions Supported by Executive Control

  • Planning and organization
  • Time management
  • Self-monitoring and error detection
  • Emotional regulation
  • Task initiation and completion
  • Problem-solving and critical thinking

Key Point: Strong executive functions help overcome biases, resist mental sets, and support creative problem-solving[web:129].

💡 Creativity and Thinking

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down options to find the single best or correct answer[web:129].

Used for:

  • Multiple-choice tests
  • Solving math problems
  • Applying rules and algorithms
  • Finding "the right answer"

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible solutions or novel ideas[web:129].

Used for:

  • Brainstorming
  • Creative problem-solving
  • Artistic expression
  • Generating alternatives

Example Test:

Divergent: "List all possible uses for a paperclip" (creativity test)
Convergent: "What is 2 + 2?" (one correct answer)

Functional Fixedness

Functional fixedness is the tendency to see objects only in terms of their usual function, limiting creative problem-solving[web:129].

Effects:

  • Prevents seeing alternative uses for objects
  • Limits divergent thinking
  • Related to mental set
  • Blocks creative solutions

Example:

Only seeing a paperclip as something to hold papers together, not as a potential lock pick, zipper pull, or tiny hook. Only seeing a textbook as reading material, not as a doorstop or step stool[web:129].

The Creative Process

  1. Preparation: Gathering relevant information and resources
  2. Incubation: Letting ideas develop unconsciously in the background
  3. Illumination: The "Aha!" moment when the solution appears
  4. Verification: Testing and refining the creative idea[web:129]

📊 Additional Decision-Making Biases

Gambler's Fallacy

The mistaken belief that random events are influenced by previous outcomes[web:129].

Example: Thinking you're "due" for a win after a losing streak, or that a coin is "due" for tails after several heads[web:129].

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing to invest in something just because we've already invested time, money, or effort, even when it's no longer beneficial[web:129].

Example: Staying in a bad relationship because you've already invested years, or finishing a terrible movie because you paid for the ticket[web:129].

📝 AP Exam Strategy

Multiple Choice Tips

  • Know definitions: concepts, prototypes, schemas, assimilation, accommodation[web:129]
  • Distinguish algorithms from heuristics — systematic vs. shortcut[web:129]
  • Master the two main heuristics: availability (memory ease) vs. representativeness (prototype matching)[web:129][web:139]
  • Recognize biases: confirmation, overconfidence, hindsight, belief perseverance[web:129]
  • Understand influences: mental set, priming, framing effect[web:129]
  • Know creativity concepts: convergent vs. divergent thinking, functional fixedness[web:129]

Free Response Question (FRQ) Tips

  • Use precise terminology and define key terms clearly[web:129]
  • Provide concrete examples for each concept — don't just repeat definitions
  • Explain mechanisms: How does confirmation bias work? Why do heuristics lead to errors?[web:129]
  • Apply to scenarios: Show how schemas guide assimilation vs. accommodation
  • Compare and contrast: availability vs. representativeness, convergent vs. divergent[web:129]
  • Link concepts: How do executive functions help overcome mental sets?

✨ Quick Review Summary

🔑 The Big Picture

We organize information through concepts (mental categories) and prototypes (best examples). Schemas are complex frameworks that change through assimilation (adding info) or accommodation (changing schema). We solve problems using algorithms (systematic, guaranteed) or heuristics (shortcuts that can create biases). Availability heuristic judges by memory ease; representativeness heuristic judges by prototype matching. Cognitive biases (confirmation, overconfidence, hindsight, belief perseverance) affect judgments. Decisions are influenced by mental set, priming, and framing. Executive functions regulate behavior and support creativity. Divergent thinking generates many ideas; convergent thinking finds one answer. Functional fixedness limits seeing alternative uses[web:129].

💡 Essential Concepts

  • Concepts
  • Prototypes
  • Schemas
  • Assimilation
  • Accommodation
  • Algorithms
  • Heuristics
  • Availability heuristic
  • Representativeness heuristic
  • Anchoring bias
  • Confirmation bias
  • Overconfidence effect
  • Hindsight bias
  • Belief perseverance
  • Mental set
  • Priming
  • Framing effect
  • Executive functions
  • Convergent thinking
  • Divergent thinking
  • Functional fixedness
  • Gambler's fallacy
  • Sunk-cost fallacy

📚 AP Psychology Unit 2.2 Study Notes | Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

Master cognitive processes, heuristics, and biases for exam success!